Like Jesus, Muhammad’s personality and message of divine unity attracted a host of extraordinary individuals who came to be known as Sahaba, or Companions. These were the first witnesses of the Last Prophethood, the first students of the great master, who spoke not by his own tongue, but by direct inspiration from God.
Although ten Companions had been promised the succor of Paradise (al-ashara al-mubashshara bi ‘l-janna), the highest in rank amongst them were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali.
The four, collectively known as the Rightly-Guided Caliphs (Khalifa Rashidun), were the earliest leaders of the Muslim community.
Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr’s name before his conversion was Abdul Kaba. The Prophet changed it to Abdullah after Abu Bakr accepted Islam. Abu Bakr was one the Prophet’s closest and most devoted Companions. When Prophet Muhammad related that he had been brought to Jerusalem and then to the Gardens of Paradise in one night, many disbelieved, but Abu Bakr’s belief never wavered.
The day that the Prophet Muhammad passed away, Abu Bakr grieved but possessed such a strong understanding of the Prophet’s essential message that he quickly recovered and placed his concerns on the welfare of the young Muslim community that had just lost its leader. He told them:
Muhammad is no more than a Messenger: many were the Messengers that passed away before Him 1.
Abu Bakr was the first Caliph. He ruled for two short years and died in 634.
Umar
Umar was also known as the Differentiator, for his profound ability to distinguish between right and wrong, truth and falsehood. His considerable reputation and strength of personality did much to unite the Muslim community and establish a functioning system of imperial government.
Arab historiography portrays Umar as having created the institution of the diwan. This is in full accord with Umar’s strong sense of justice and equity, for the diwan primarily recorded the influx of revenue, registered those who were entitled to stipends, and ensured the fair distribution of funds.
Under Umar, statecraft grew more confident, and he came to be known as Amir al-Muminin, or Commander of the Faithful, with a more defined authority over political, military as well as religious matters.
Umar was the second Caliph. He ruled for ten years and was killed by a disgruntled Christian slave.
Uthman
Uthman was known as the Possessor of Two Lights (Dhi Nurayn) because the Prophet gave him his daughter Ruqaya in marriage. When she died of illness during an important battle at Badr, the Prophet gave him his other daughter Umm Kulthum. When she too passed away, the Prophet remarked:
If I possessed a third daughter, I would marry her to you, too.
During Uthman’s reign, the Muslims mastered seafaring. Its navy became strong and scored an important victory against the Byzantines in the “Battle of the Masts” (654-655).
A year later, the Caliph’s estate was besieged by a group of mutineers from the Arab army in Egypt who had come to Medina to place their grievances before him. Food and water was cut off. Finally, on 17 June 656, the mutineers stormed into the Caliph’s quarters and killed him 2.
Uthman was the third Caliph and ruled for twelve years.
Ali
Ali was known as the Chosen One, for his deep insight and special favor that the Prophet bestowed on him. The Prophet Muhammad once said of him:
You are to me like Aaron was to Moses, except that there is to be no prophet after me 3.
After Uthman’s death, the remaining Companions presented the Caliphate to Ali, but he declined. Deeply affected by Uthman’s violent death, Ali refused to come out of his home.
Finally, after the third day of Uthman’s death, Ali was once again asked, and he accepted, thus putting the stability of the Muslim community over and above his own reservations about the high office.
Throughout his reign, Ali faced tremendous pressure to find Uthman’s killers and bring them to justice. However, Uthman’s killers were part of a larger conspiracy within the army. They were thus well-armed and dangerous. A premature move against them would tear the community apart.
Another Companion Muawiya went as far as to march against Ali to force him into action. Muawiya later regretted his decision. In the critical Battle of Siffin (657), both he and Ali agreed to arbitration.
Ali was the fourth and final Rightly-Guided Caliph and ruled for four years and nine months 4. He was killed by a member of the heretical sect called Khawarij, who resented his arbitration with Muawiya.
The four extraordinary individuals held the lofty title of Caliph not for personal gain or power, but to fulfill their duties toward the Muslim community, who needed strong leaders to sustain and thereby expand it. Because the title of Caliph also covered the political sphere of the early Muslim community, several factions arose that opposed either all or some of the Four Caliphs. Some, like the Khawarij, had an enormous and painful impact on Muslim history through their actions. The orthodox position of Sunni Muslims, however, is that all Four Caliphs were upright and divinely-guided.
The Ahl al-Sunna are unanimous that all (the Companions) are upright… 5.
Together, the Rightly-Guided Caliphs ruled for about 30 years. And although the period was short and tumultuous, the fledgling Muslim community was well on its way to taking its own place in history.
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